In 1847 the American missionary and naturalist Thomas Savage discovered the skull and bones of the western gorilla. Savage found the remains of this hitherto unknown species during his missionary work in Liberia and sent the material to Boston. There it was analysed and described by the naturalist Jeffries Wyman, who named the species Troglodytes gorilla. In 1929 the species was renamed Gorilla gorilla.

Little was known about the gorilla when the captured specimen was sent to France. The newspaper article recounts how during a patrol, an African soldier in the French army was captured by a gorilla. The animal dragged the soldier high up in a tree and tried to feed the mortified man bananas. After a while, the gorilla got bored and let the soldier go. He then went about its business. The soldier survived the fall from the tree and was carried to a medical post to recover.

At that time doctor Louis Jérôme Auzoux (1797-1880) was already a celebrity. He achieved fame with his detailed and realistic didactic models of men, animals, and plants. Legend has it that the body of the gorilla was sent to him in a barrel of rum. Auzoux dissected the primate in public, and used the muscle tissue, skeletal structure, bones and organs for the first version of the spectacular, life-size anatomical papier-mâché model.

The main innovation of doctor Auzoux, apart from using his secret papier-mâché recipe for his anatomical models, was the idea to create a model of separate parts so that it could be taken apart. His first anatomical model, that of a life-size man, was meant to replace dissections on dead bodies, making anatomy lessons less unpleasant and less dangerous for medical students.

The gorilla, like all Auzoux models in the nineteenth century, is made of paper-mâché. Each part is moulded, sculpted and manufactured separately. The finer anatomical details are painted on the smooth surfaces of the parts. The main arteries are constructed from metal wires wrapped in cotton thread. In the course of the twentieth century the Auzoux factory started to make models of plaster and plastics.

In 1863, when he received and dissected the gorilla the name Louis Auzoux was already an established brand. His anatomical models were well-known in France and abroad. In the previous years the Auzoux factory had produced anatomical models with a predominantly utilitarian function, but the interest in this particular type of didactic visualisation was growing.

It is often thought that the sudden interest in the anatomy of the gorilla, and the motivation of doctor Auzoux to create his model was related to the publication of Charles Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species (1859). This is not the case. Although the publication of Darwin’s work would fundamentally change our understanding of biodiversity, it was not until the publication of The Descent of Man in 1871 that the controversy caused by its central thesis would spark a public debate. In this seminal book, Darwin argued for the first time that man and ape are both descended from a common ancestor. The creation of the prototype of our gorilla and the appearance of the first commercially available models around 1869, must have been purely out of curiosity for this newly discovered species. It can not be considered as a contribution to a polemic that had not started yet.

The Age of Enlightenment introduced the pursuit of knowledge as an important feature of human development. The universe was thought of as big, but also rational, and with adequate education man would be able to answer all questions and solve all problems. In this new intellectual climate academic education blossomed and expeditions set out to study the world beyond Europe. These expeditions often had a descriptive and administrative purpose and experts described the geography, the geology, the people, the mineral resources and the nature of the places they visited. They collected naturalia, exotic species, rocks, minerals, and cultural artefacts. In Europe there was a lively interest in objects coming from overseas areas. This interest was partly scientific and partly caused by a taste for the exotic, the curious, and the spectacular. When Thomas Savage inadvertently stumbled upon a new species in West Africa it would surely attract the attention of cultured people. Therefore, it is understandable that Napoleon III would order a specimen to be sent to doctor Auzoux to be dissected and transformed into an anatomical model.

So how did doctor Louis Auzoux become a manufacturer of didactic anatomical and botanical models? In France, the Age of Enlightenment was followed by the egalitarianism of the French Revolution. One of the changes created by these movements was the creation of a new system of education. This system promoted standardised classrooms for a healthy and productive environment and standardised curricula. Responsibility for education was no longer a privilege of the church. From then on schools were accessible to all levels of society. Doctor Auzoux’ didactic models were perfectly timed for this new system where teaching by demonstration became increasingly important. But the Auzoux factory was not unique.

During the nineteenth century, other manufacturers were specialising in didactical aides, like Madame du Coudray’s adapted Baby Machine by the Paris firm Etablissements Mathieu. Angélique du Coudray (1712-1794) was a midwife who embraced the new climate of educational reform to teach the art of giving birth (l’art des accouchements) with the use of a model. In the realm of botany, the delicate models of German model makers Robert Brendel (1821-1898) and Reinhold Brendel (1861-1921) acquired wide acclaim, especially in the academic world.

The foundation of medical colleges throughout France caused an increase in anatomy lessons. Dissections were a mandatory part of these courses. As refrigeration technology was not developed on a wide scale yet, the cooling of cadavers was either rudimentary, or dependent on the weather. Dissection therefore, was an awful business. People in the vicinity of anatomical theatres complained about the heinous smell. Professors performing dissections and students assisting them were always at risk of infection.

With the increase of the number of dissections came the need for a less odious substitute. Several people started to make anatomical models. Most of these model were made with great artistic talent and skill. They were made from wax, like the beautiful models of the Italian Fontane, or with wood. These materials had the disadvantage that they were either fragile or heavy. Above all, the models were prohibitively expensive. In the early nineteenth century Jean François Améline, a young medical practitioner, created an anatomical model using papier-mâché. This material was ideal because it was cheap, light and tough. It was a huge step forward, but Ameline’s student Louis Auzoux would take the idea even further. He borrowed the idea to use papier-mâché from Améline but built his model out of separate pieces. The models created by Auzoux could be taken apart during anatomy lessons, mimicking a dissection. The parts, with their detailed and realistically painted surfaces, could be studied and explained separately. This was the birth of the clastic (from the Greek klao, which means to break) model. One of the first models Auzoux made was a life-size anatomical model of a man. This Grand Écorché (large flayed man) was the start of his career and his fame.

The ideal of intellectual growth paved the way for academies, including medical schools, to improve their curricula and to focus more on didactic demonstrations rather than repeat traditional and often obsolete knowledge. This progress was an opportunity for doctor Auzoux. A life-size anatomical model of a horse showed his ability to tackle very complex objects with his paper-mâché technique. It also underlines his talent for clever marketing, because the creation of the horse model coincided with the formation of military academies and veterinary colleges.

Horses were very important in the nineteenth century because they were the most common mode of transport in civil society as well as in the army. Both the cavalry and the infantry used horses. A good understanding of equine anatomy was important to educate the people responsible for their health and well-being. After having created a full model of the horse he also created a series of detailed studies of separate anatomical parts, like the mandible, legs, and feet. Auzoux catered for every specialism. Modelling the horse was a strategic choice based on its usefulness for society.

Auzoux approached the other zoological models with the same sense of pragmatism. It was a logical choice to create the model of a silkworm, because of the economic significance of the silk industry. Modelling bees, oxen, and leeches was a conschious choice equally driven by utilitarian or economical motives.

As the collection grew, many more animal species were created. They were and presented in the sales catalogue as comparative anatomy. Often these were models of organs or skeletal structures of animals.

After the success of the anatomical models Auzoux applied his craft to botany. The first models represented plant species which were important for the agriculture of the time, like wheat, and could be used in agricultural colleges. Soon these models were also introduced in primary and secondary schools.

With the establishment of his factory, doctor Auzoux had created an efficient production line that was capable of producing a series of highly detailed and high quality anatomical and botanical models in large quantities. These objects would be of interest to a wide market, and after the initial success of his models of humans and horses, the demand for his work steadily increased. To sustain this remarkable factory in Saint-Aubin with its specialised workers it was necessary to increase public awareness by approaching influential people.

Auzoux invited influential friends to write positive reviews, praising the usefulness of his models. In 1833 Auzoux himself sent a letter to all the prefects of the administrative departments of France, underlining the importance of realistic anatomical models for anatomy lessons in public institutions in the interest of science and humanity. He asked to put his proposal to the vote in the general assembly. The letter was accompanied by a positive report from the Academy of Medicine.

The minutes of the general assembly of the department of the Drôme, held on 27 August 1837, contains a reference to Auzoux’ letter. Article 19, Clastic anatomy model, describes how such a model could be useful as a guide for the practitioner, the young anatomist, or as an instructional aide for someone teaching philosophy. It also mentions the fact that Auzoux proposes a smaller alternative which costs only 1000 francs. The assembly concludes however that it has no financial resources for such a purchase and that the usefulness of the model for the department would be very limited. No further action was taken.

Although the shape and integrity remained intact, the surface of our gorilla has deteriorated over time. Under the influence of the often suboptimal conditions in which the model was kept, the coating has given way and the thin outer layers of paper, glue and paint have crumbled or peeled off. This is a problem with many of the Auzoux models that have survived in attics, broom closets, and garages. Apart from having a damaged surface, the model was quite dirty. It was not beyond repair, but it was clear that it had to be restored.

In a painstakingly careful process which took several months the gorilla was professionally stabilised, cleaned, conserved, and carefully restored by the Paris-based restorer Celine Poirier who holds the masters degree Restaurateur et conservateur d’œuvres d’art from the Ecole de Condé. She passionately specialises in paper objects from the nineteenth to the twenty-first century, especially globes.

Céline Poirier has extensive experience with the restoration of Auzoux models, paper manuscripts and works by a great artists like Picasso, Picabia, Sallusto and Hockney.

Although the Auzoux factory continued to manufacture anatomical and botanical models well into the twentieth century, its management decided to diversify the offering even further by producing anatomical wall-charts and other didactic materials. For their models, they moved away from papier-mâché to plaster and plastics.

The demands of education changed, materials changed, and the old anatomical and botanical models were slowly pushed aside by newer, more modern and less costly objects of instruction. Many models withered away in display cabinets in schools, attics and broom-closets, or were simply discarded. Some survived these episodic cleaning frenzies and ended up into the possession of public and private collectors. Gradually the smaller anatomical and botanical models were considered as decorative objects which gave a touch of academic distinction to an interior.

Recently, historic objects of natural history, such as anatomical and botanical models, botanical illustrations, fossils, and faux-, rogue-, or real taxidermy, have gone through a revival in high culture, closely followed by popular culture. This re-emergence is complex and many-faceted. The re-emergence of natural history in art galleries and museums is also related to a renewed fascination with death. This fascination manifested itself through the popularity of goth- and emo subcultures, and the loosely related adoption of steampunk by a very wide audience.

The revival of taxidermy is paralleled by an increase in the popularity of Victorian photography, specifically ambrotypes because they are still widely available. Not only have they an unmistakably gothic charm, but they are also from the period, and therefore allow modern collectors to reach out and get something authentic and affordable. The added value for the enthusiast of the nineteenth century and the macabre is the existence of post-mortem photos from this era. Not everyone’s cup of tea, but popular with an increasing circle of enthusiasts which has also adopted taxidermy as a cultural and artistic language to express old ideas with new signs and symbols.

Our gorilla has a different status. It is not stuffed, it is not created by infusing the tissue with plasticine, like the posed cadavers of Dr. Günther Hagen, it is entirely artificial. The gorilla does not pretend to be more than a didactic tool. But it has become much more than that, because it is a silent witness to an age in which the last big pieces of the puzzle of the world were discovered, while the maddening complexity of life was captured by the first comprehensive theory.

This gorilla has travelled through many periods, and as a witness of the past it has taken on new meanings, as a symbol, not only of the science of discovery but also of a species that is threatened with extinction, because the habitats in which it thrived when it was discovered are rapidly disappearing. In this sense, it is a perfectly modern vanitas.

Baroux C., et al., Prodiges de la nature, les créations du docteur Auzoux (1797-1880). Collections de l’Université de Montpellier. DRAC Occitanie CRMH 2017.

Deguerce, C., Corps de papier. L’anatomie en papier mâché du docteur Auzoux. Editions de la Martinière 2012.

Grob, B. (ed.), Papieren anatomie. De wonderschone papier-maché modellen van dokter Auzoux. Walburg Pers 2008.

Jones, W.T., A History of Western Philosophy. Kant and the Nineteenth Century. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1975

Lessus, Y., Le Muséum National de l’Histoire naturelle. Gallimard 1995.

Percheron, B., Nouveaux cabinets de curiosités. De l’anatomie clastique Auzoux à la décoration comtemporaine. Rouen n.d.

Video about the restoration of the gorilla, performed by Céline Poirier (25 min.)